Female Deacons & Deaconesses in the Ancient Church (Cliffs Notes Version)

If you’d ever wondered whether or not I’m a nerd, this post should successfully dispel any notions to the contrary… Yes, I’m posting an outline. This semester I’m taking a course in polity at Anglican School of Ministry. My first assignment was to put together a presentation on deaconesses in the ancient church. The prof requires us to write an outline, present it, then turn it along with the feedback into a 10-15 page paper. Fair enough. It just so happens, however, that this corresponds with a number of maddening facebook discussions I’ve recently been having on the topic.¹1.For those who may read this, no, I’m not referring exclusively to the women’s ordination discussion recently taking place in the “Anglican Discussion: Respectful, Diverse, Orthodox” group. Considering the importance of the issues and passionate positions people hold, I actually thought that dialogue was reasonably civil. I say “maddening” because of the rampant anachronistic claims, oversimplistic categorizations, poor historical methodology, and so forth being put forth by pert near everyone, regardless of their particular views. Unfortunately, it seems people are too busy posting their two-sentence blips to take the time to thoughtfully reconsider the facts as well as their presuppositions and interpretations. In my humble opinion, we need to fundamentally re-frame the nature of the discourse by thoughtfully reconsidering the complex issues. I intend to post my paper once it’s done, but figured the cliff notes version might get more play among those who are challenged in the attention span department. By the way, the structure is a little odd. It’s chronological, but it goes through twice. The first time lays the foundation. The second builds upon it… Alrighty, here goes:

I. Prolegomena

A. Perspective

1. Background

a. Spent most my life outside of Anglicanism tradition

b. Not a source of identity

i. “Anglican” merely describes what sort of Christian I am

ii. It’s an adjective rather than a noun

2. Skeptical disposition

a. Don’t assume the correctness or supremacy of the Anglican tradition

b. Make an effort not to interpret history through a distinctly Anglican lens

3. Aspired objectivity

a. Acknowledge that perspective, bias, and presuppositions are inevitable

b. Nevertheless, seeking to remain as objective as possible in terms of WO issues

4. Academic background

a. Trained in history

i. Think in terms of primary/secondary sources, socio-political contexts, etc.

ii. Little tolerance for anachronistic/nonsensical theological inquiries

a) Was Calvin a Calvinist?

b) Was Peter the first pope?

b. Theological outlook

i. Issue of deaconesses is unquestionably theological

ii. Yet I don’t approach it primarily from a systematic vantage point

5. Theological presuppositions

a. Scripture and tradition

i. Bible’s teachings are authoritative (in so far as they’re rightly interpreted and discerningly applied) but not exhaustive

ii. Hold to Prima Scriptura; believe Sola Scriptura to be historically untenable

iii. Apostolic tradition is an essential interpretive lens for rightly interpreting text

iv. Catch-22:

a) Through tradition that church determined what was, in fact, Scripture

b) Yet Scripture is an essential standard by which we judge the church

b. Catholic and Protestant tension

i. Spirit faithfully guided theological and ecclesiastical development

ii. Corruption occurs and requires restoration by the Spirit

c. Ecclesiastical authority

i. Church itself not invested with authority

ii. Authoritative only in so far as it maintains Christ’s teachings transmitted through apostolic authority

iii. More steward than king

6. Limitations

a. Lack of expertise

i. New to this field… so I definitely could be wrong

ii. Tried to read as many primary sources as possible

iii. Yet largely dependent upon scholarly expertise through secondary sources

b. Limited resources

i. Baptist library has limited material in this field

ii. ILL books didn’t come in on time

c. Conflicting accounts

i. Scholars I read interpreted limited texts differently

ii. For example, J.G. Davies disagrees with K.K. FitzGerald

B. Clarifications

1. Assumed working knowledge

a. Three-fold office of bishops, priests, and deacons

b. Function, role, and development of male diaconate

c. Basic ancient and church history

d. Patriarchal (technical not pejorative sense) ANE and Greco-Roman culture

2. Excluded topics

a. Role of women in Old Testament

b. Role of women in New Testament except possible diaconate origins

c. General cultural standing of women in the ancient church

d. Contemporary debate(s) over women’s ordination

3. Historical scope

a. Surveying whole Patristic era up to Great Schism in 1054

b. Focusing primarily on first six centuries

II. Historical development

A. First century

1. Ecclesiastical structures

a. Polity in primitive, amorphous form

b. Certainly no formal three-fold office yet

2. Biblical texts as a “fragile base”

a. Deacons: New Testament

i. Role exists and functions described

ii. But not necessarily in a technical sense

iii. No textual evidence for a formal ordination process, i.e. laying hands

b. Female Deacons: Two passages

i. Romans 16:1, Phoebe

ii. 1 Timothy 3:11, Female deacons or wives of deacons?

2. Conclusions

a. Affirmations

i. One verse provides biblical evidence for female deacons

ii. Possible precedent established

b. Qualifications

i. Little biblical illumination of female deacons

ii. Necessary to resist arguments from silence

c. Sample of lingering questions

i. How prevalent were female deacons in the first century?

ii. Was their role distinguishable from male deacons?

iii. Were their regional distinctives reflecting differing cultural practices?

iv. Was there variance in understanding among the apostles?

d. Key issue: Biblical application

i. Restrictive: Is only that which is taught by Scripture to be permitted or

ii. Generous: Does Scripture allow that which isn’t condemned?

e. Reminder: Continuing story

i. Scriptures are uniquely inspired, but…

ii. There’s no radical break in church history between NT era and second century

B. Second century

1. Geographical and cultural considerations

a. East: Female deacons developed far eastern borders, then spread inward

b. West: Almost certainly no female deacons

i. First appearance in 5^th century

ii. Not accepted until 8^th century

c. Among the earliest antecedents of future split

i. Greek East –> Eastern Orthodox

ii. Latin West –> Roman Catholic

iii. Aside: Celtic + Roman + Protestant –> Anglican?

2. Limited documentation

a. No information available in sacred sources

b. Secular source: Letter to emperor Trajan from Pliny of Bithnynia

i. Earliest extra-canonical mention to female deacons

ii. Establishes existence of female deacons in eastern empire

iii. Hints at a respected role

iv. Evidences likely persecution

v. Says nothing about an official order

c. Must once again resist making strong arguments from virtual silence

3. Minor orders

a. There’s evidence for the initial development of minor orders

b. Possible but improvable that female deacons held such a role

c. But it’s a hypothetical link at best

C. Third century

1. Formal orders

a. First definite reference comes from middle of century

b. Significance of the late date is debated

2. Western perspective: Latin fathers

a. Tertullian and Hippolytus of Rome

b. Their theology left no room for female deacons or any formal feminine ministry

3. Eastern perspective: Didascalia Apostolorum

a. Patterned after Didache

b. First extended treatment of female deacons

c. Syrian origin: Written in Aramaic, translated into Greek and Latin

d. Chapters 14-16 give rules for male and female deacons as well as widows

e. Interchangeably uses female deacons and deaconesses

4. Universal: Church structures beginning to formalize

a. Apparently during lapses in persecution

b. Female deacons experience initial increase in respect and authority

c. Minor orders begin development

i. Subdeacons (since 2^nd century), acolytes, doorkeepers, exorcists, readers

ii. Not formalized

5. Cultural issues

a. Need likely precipitated by widespread gender segregation in Greek culture

b. Connection to virgins and widows

i. One text explicitly links the two

ii. Unknown if this is a good representative sample

6. Conclusions

a. Still very little evidence

b. Female deacons solely in eastern church

c. Existed before the three-fold office was cemented

d. Female diaconate is not a “homogenous phenomenon”

D. Fourth century

1. Hierarchical/bureaucratic structures developing amidst empire’s Christianization

a. Synods and ecumenical councils

b. Three-fold office formalized

i. Diaconate no longer terminal role

ii. Distinction between female deacons and deaconesses codified

iii. Subordination of deaconesses as minor order to ordained deacons

2. Addressed at length by church fathers

a. Examples: Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, Basil of Caesarea, John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa

b. Some like Chrysostom were passionate advocates of female deacons

3. Council of Nicaea (325, Asia Minor)

a. Passing reference

b. Use of “deaconess”

i. First known reference

ii. But unlikely an innovation

c. Consecrated, not ordained

4. Apostolic Constitutions

a. Adaptation of Didascalia

b. Contains oldest available ordination rite

5. Synod of Nîmes (394, Gaul)

a. Dealt with church discipline

b. Completely forbid female deaconesses

6. Subdeacons and minor orders

a. Development impacted diaconate

i. Made more administrative

ii. Apparently limited number in local area to 7

ii. Elevated role of clergy; Lowered role of laity

iii. Acolytes became necessary

b. Greater development and refinement in east

7. Celtic Christianity

a. Greater roles and appreciation for women

b. But no deaconesses

i. No evidence female deacons or deaconesses ever existed in Ireland

ii. Viewed as “foreign ancient custom”

8. Contested interpretations

a. Conjecturing approach

i. Male and female deacons developed in tandem

ii. Then deaconesses distinguished, separated, and subjugated

b. Literalist approach

i. Male-only diaconate first developed

ii. Then deaconesses devolved from male diaconate with ongoing clarification

c. Historical methodology: Do first appearances of things in limited texts…

i. Illustrate recent innovations?

ii. Simply acknowledge what has long existed?

9. Conclusions

a. Distinction drawn between male deacons and female deaconesses

b. Conflicting testimony regarding ordination

c. Trend toward monastic role

E. Fifth century

1. East: Geographical shrinking

a. No longer present even in Egypt or Ethiopia

b. Dominance in Asia Minor and Palestinian regions

2. West: First appearance

a. Apparently rare

b. Not as required by Roman culture

3. Testamentum Domini (Testimony of our Lord)

a. Collection of church orders

b. Added pastoral and liturgical functions to deaconesses

c. Describes them in relation to virgins and widows

d. No female priests, but deaconesses are an ordained office

4. Synod of Orange (411, Gaul)

a. Exterior orientation: Recommended caution to bishops in matters outside their own jurisdiction…

i. Ordination of foreign clergy

ii. Consecration of churches

b. Deaconesses

i. Condemned ordination

ii. Emphasized celibacy for clergy, deaconesses, and widows

iii. Issue of interpretation: Does this suggest…

a) Women were being ordained in west or

b) Is it a response to the east?

5. Council of Chalcedon (451, Asia Minor)

a. Does not specify what a deaconess is—assumes it

b. Ordained, not consecrated

c. Only at age 40

d. Must be virgin or widow

e. To be anathemized if married

6. Minor orders

a. Trends continued of specification and formality

b. Lectorate developed under deacon and subdeacon

i. Impacted role of deaconesses

ii. Further removed from liturgical practices

7. Conclusions

a. Continuing trends of subordination of deaconesses and monastic function

F. Sixth century

1. Novellae of Justinian

a. Roman law concerning clerical salaries and other church expenses

b. Lists male and female deacons together

c. Says they should be paid equally

d. Lumping together of male and females deacons with nuns, monks, and other ascetics

2. Conclusions

a. Male and female deacons were legally equated

b. Question: Imprecise Roman language or blurring of roles in this century?

G. Seventh – tenth centuries

1. Ongoing trends

a. Shrinking roles and popularity until complete disappearance

b. Limited mostly to convents

2. Constantine Porphyrogenitus

a. Tenth century

b. One of last historical references to female deacons until modern restoration

c. Concerns pastoral and liturgical functions

3. Conclusions

a. Female diaconate disappeared during Middle Ages

 III. Evolving roles and functions

A. First – second century

1. It seems probable that…

a. The formal diaconate grew out of the events in Acts 6:1-7

b. Female deacons were common in the second century

c. Their role was similar or equal to that of male deacons

2. We don’t know if…

a. Female deacons were common in the first century

b. The other apostles besides Paul used female deacons

c. Deacons in general experienced a laying on of hands

d. Phoebe at all set a precedent in the west, e.g. Rome

e. Subsequent practices correspond to earlier practices

3. We know definitively that the female diaconate wasn’t…

a. A later innovation

b. Part of a formalized three-fold office, which didn’t exist yet

c. A minor order, which didn’t exist yet

4. What I don’t know but may be available is knowledge about…

a. The cultural status of women throughout the Roman Empire

b. Whether Christianity would have accepted, rejected, or modified those cultural norms in regards to female deacons

B. Third century

1. Precise duties

a. Visit sick women in heathen household where deacon may not fittingly enter

b. Administer unction

c. Instruction of female candidates

d. Performed baptism of women (nude) for bishop

2. Relationship to male diaconate

a. Exclusive ministry to women

b. Otherwise virtually the same

c. Likely more parallel than subordinate

C. Fourth century

1. Expanded duties

a. Responsible for door and seating of women

b. Direct servant of bishop—all communication from women must go through her

c. Bring reserve sacrament to ill women, paralleling male deacons

2. Relationship to male diaconate

a. More subordinate than parallel

b. Male diaconate becoming transitional office, therefore…

i. Transitional for deacons

ii. Terminal for deaconesses

c. Relationship to presbyters

i. Deacons able to fill in for presbyter

ii. Deaconesses not able to

d. Liturgy

i. Deacons take up offering and may administer chalice

ii. Deaconesses forbidden from both (Synod of Laodicea)

e. Developing distinction and separation

D. Fifth century

1. Complicated period

a. Preeminence

i. Formally recognized as ordained office

ii. Public approval at height while

b. Role

i. Ongoing subjugation to subdeacons

ii. Functions being swallowed up by minor orders

2. Monastic movement gaining steam

E. Sixth – tenth centuries

1. Restricted duties

a. Replaced by subdeacons

b. Replaced by formal doorkeepers

c. Replaced by acolytes

d. Replaced by readers

d. Largely replaced by formal exorcists

e. Lectorates was final blow

2. Largely becoming superfluous during organized worship

3. Influence of increasingly religiously homogeneous empire

a. Fewer adult converts

b. Paedobaptism became norm

c. Deaconesses unneeded for women baptisms

4. Deaconesses increasingly limited

a. Monastic ministry exclusively

b. Completely swallowed up

 IV. Reflection questions

A. First century

1. To what degree can or should we rely on biblical evidence where it is largely silent?

B. Second century

1. To what degree should or shouldn’t we presume that the Hellenized early church comported with the practices of apostles and their predominantly Judean heritage?

C. Third century

1. As a Western tradition, to what degree should or shouldn’t Anglicanism be influenced by the practices of Western Christianity in the Patristic Era?

D. Fourth century

1. Are these Spirit-led developments, cultural corruptions, or particular cultural adaptations of Christianity?

E. Fifth century

1. What are the implications of conflict between the teachings of the ecumenical councils?

F. Sixth – Tenth centuries

1. Given the limited biblical evidence, complete scarcity of information in the second century, and complicated development through the sixth century, what should we take away as the ideal role of the female diaconate in the historic church?